William B. Gudykunst &Young Yun Kim.《与陌生人交际—跨文化交流方法（第四版）》，上海外语教育出版社，2007.7 P69-70
Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter.《跨文化交际读本（第十版）》，上海外语教育出版社，2007.7 P241, P305-306, P378
Carley H. Dodd.《跨文化交际动力（第五版）》，上海外语教育出版社，2006.10 P89-92 Stella Ting-Toomey.《跨文化间的交流》，上海外语教育出版社，2007.11P100-103
Myron W. Lustig & Jolene Koester.《跨文化能力：文化间人际沟通导论》，上海外语教育出版社，2007.9 P109-111
Chapter 7
Learning Objectives
1. to understand how language and culture are closely linked
2. to perceive the vital role of verbal codes in intercultural communication as well as the important
relationships among language, thought, culture, and behavior
第七章 跨文化交际障碍
本章主要介绍了跨文化交际障碍的表现形式，提出了一些有效地克服跨文化交际障碍的建议。 本章内容共分为两个部分。
第一部分是关于跨文化交际障碍的表现形式。跨文化交际障碍的主要表现形式有焦虑、假定一致性、种族中心主义、文化定势和偏见以及语言障碍。焦虑是指在新的环境下，人们不知道如何应对时而所产生的过多地关注自己情绪的心理或行为。认知角度的假定一致性是从自己看待事物的角度来判断别人的想法。它是人们的环境敏感性较差时经常出现的一种心理。种族中心主义简单地说就是从本文化的角度片面的审视其他民族的文化，很多人都具有这样一种倾向：认为自己的民族比其他民族更加优秀。这种倾向成为跨文化交际中常见的一种障碍。文化定势指的是针对目标群体的成员所持有的（过于简单的）正面或反面的判断。它同另一种交际障碍的表现形式偏见类似。偏见是对于某一特定群体、种族、宗教或性取向的无端地不喜欢、憎恶和怀疑。语言障碍主要在于言语的表达问题，主要从两个方面进行了阐述：萨贝尔—沃尔夫假说。萨贝尔—沃尔夫假设认为语言结构影响说话者对现实的认知，并影响他们的思维模式和世界观；翻译的障碍。这主要是由于缺乏词汇、成语、语法－句法、经历和概念的对等性等因素造成的。
37
第二部分是关于克服跨文化交际障碍的一些建议。针对跨文化交际障碍的表现形式，我们主要
应该从以下四个方面进行克服。首先是提高意识。通过提高自我意识，人们能够意识到自己的价值观，并了解偏见以及由此产生的影响。同时也能够提高环境的敏感性，以积极态度适应差异。其次是丰富知识。所谓知识指的是在特定文化中的人们环境和规范的认知信息。这里的“知识”包括宏观文化和微观文化知识。宏观文化知识指无论在何种文化下，在跨文化交际过程中普遍遇到的具体的文化理论。它具有一定的普遍性，是实现跨文化交际的基础。微观文化知识指不同文化下特定的习俗礼仪和规则。它具有一定的特殊性，是出现跨文化交际障碍的主要原因。再次是增强主动性（或者说是积极性）。主动性指在跨文化交际过程中，正如人们预期和实际使用的一系列全面的情感交织。人类的情绪反应包括：情绪和意图。情绪包括对于其他文化的敏感性和对于特定文化和特定群体的态度。意图指在跨文化交际中强调并指导人们进行选择的目标、计划和目的。通过对情绪和意图有意识地调整，人们将清除掉跨文化交际中的很多障碍。最后是掌握一些技巧。技巧包括：宏观文化技巧和微观文化技巧。宏观文化技巧指对其他文化要掌握灵活性，容忍差异。微观文化技巧需要在日常生活以及商务往来中培养。通过对这些技巧的掌握，人们能更加有效地克服跨文化交际中的障碍，从而能够增加跨文化交际的有效性。
为了有利于对本章内容的深入学习，读者可参阅Expectancy Violation Theory违背期望理论。
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective
There are six barriers to communication — anxiety, assuming similarities instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudice, and language problems.
Anxiety is the state of feeling nervous, which can affect communication when you focus so much on your own feelings that you do not pay attention to what other people are telling you. Anxiety may also affect your ability to communicate your ideas to others, for you pay too much attention on your uncomfortable feelings. Assuming similarities instead of differences is a natural thing to do if you do not have any information about a culture. Assuming that a culture is similar to your own can cause you to ignore important differences. Ethnocentrism is negatively judging another culture by your own culture’s standards. To make ethnocentric judgments is to believe that the ways of your own culture are better than those of others.
38
Stereotyping is assuming that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just because the person is a member of a specific group. An example of a stereotype is the belief that one group of people is stupid or that another produces good athletes.
Prejudice is feeling hatred for or expressing suspicion toward people who belong to a certain group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.
A specific kind of prejudice, racism, refers to having feelings of hatred for or expressing suspicion toward all members of a particular race and denying this group its rights. Hate speech refers to hostile words and/or actions that people say or do against a certain group because that group is different. Stereotypes, racism, Prejudice continues to exist because of socialization and the apparent social, economic, and psychological benefits that come from it.
Unique aspects of cultures are reflected in the languages spoken by their population. Language can become a barrier to communication when these unique aspects interfere with translation. It can also become a barrier when a group of people are forced to speak a language they do not want to.
Five elements that typically cause problems in translation are the lack of equivalences in vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax, experiences, and concepts. One way to avoid translation problems is to back translate, which is to first translate the concept into one language and then translate it back into the original language. Doing so makes it possible to check a translation for accuracy.
Chapter Ⅶ Intercultural Communication Barriers
Key Terms
Anxiety Ethnocentrism
Assuming similarities instead of differences Stereotyping
Prejudice
Racism Hate speech
Access to more information on the World Wide Web
第七章
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype
39
2. 3. 4. 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis
http://www.chillibreeze.com/articles/TheImportanceofInterculturalAwareness.asp http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5475/is_200707/ai_n21299723
Chapter VII Intercultural Communication Barriers
I. Choose one word or expression from those in the box below to fill the gap in each of the sentences. a. Ethnocentrism b. Prejudice c. Racism d. Back translation
1. _______refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. 2. _______refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual
orientation.
3. _______is any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals
based on their race.
4. _______ is the concept of a written work translated to a second language, then having another person
translate the work back to the first language to determine if the translations are equivalent.
II. Case Analysis (Explain the cultural phenomenon with theory of intercultural communication) 1. In 1997, a Danish woman left her 14-month-old baby girl in a stroller outside a Manhattan restaurant while
she was outside. Other diners at the restaurant became concerned and called New York City Police. The woman was charged with endangering a child and was jailed for two nights. Her child was placed in foster care. The woman and the Danish consulate explained that leaving children unattended outside cafes in common in Denmark.
2. Sometimes parents will say to their children ―we don't associate with people like that.‖ Or ―be careful when
you’re with them‖.
3. During World War II, the Allies had issued the Potsdam Ultimatum demanding the surrender of the
Japanese military to end the war. Prime Minister Suzuki said, ―The government does not see much value in it. All we have to do is Mokusatsu it.‖ but the word Mokusatsu can mean anything from ―ignore‖ to ―treat with silent contempt.‖ The Allies took it as the most offensive meaning.
III. Answer the following questions
1. What are the barriers to effective intercultural communication?
40
