英语修辞手法
Figures of speech are forms of expression that depart from normal word or sentence order or from the common literal meanings of words, for the purpose of achieving a special effect.
In everyday speech and writing and in literature the chief functions of figures of speech are probably to embellish, to emphasize or to clarify. They are used to give tone or atmosphere to discourse, to provide vivid examples, to stimulate thought by startling the reader or listener, to give life to inanimate objects, to amuse, or to ornament.
Figures of speech exist in almost endless variety and many are closely related or intricately overlap, hence no completely satisfactory system of classification has ever been devised. The following may be considered one of the serviceable classifications of the present day:
1. Figures of resemblance or relationship. These are the most important, interesting, and frequent figures of speech.
2. Figures of emphasis or understatement. The chief function of these is to draw attention to an idea. 3. Figures of sound.
4. Verbal games and gymnastics. Some of these are rare and minor figures.
1. Figures of resemblance or relationship
1) Simile: a figure that involves an expressed comparison, almost always introduced by the word \and the basis of resemblance is usually an abstract quality.
a) As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far county. (Proverb) b) The water lay gray and wrinkled like an elephant's skin. (Nancy Hale)
c) My very thoughts were like the ghostly rustle of dead leaves. (Joseph Conrad)
2) Metaphor: The substitution of one thing for another, or the identification of two things from different ranges of thought. It is often loosely defined as ―an implied comparison‖, ―a simile without ?like‘ or ?as‘‖. Metaphor is considered by many the most important and basic poetic figure and also the commonest and the most beautiful.
a) Boys and girls, tumbling in the streets and playing, were moving jewels. b) The town was stormed after a long siege. c) Snow clothes the ground.
d) He swam bravely against the tide of popular applause. A note of warning: Avoid mixing figures of speech.
a) This is not the time to throw up the sponge, when the enemy, already weakened and divided, are on the run to a new defensive position. (mixed metaphor; a mixture of prize – ring and battlefield)
b) There is every indication that Nigeria will be a tower of strength and will forge ahead. (mixed metaphor; a mixture of a fortress and a ship)
3) Personification: a figure that endows objects, animals, ideas, or abstractions with human form, character, or sensibility. There are three chief kinds of personifications: a) That produced by the use of adjectives. the blushing rose; the thirsty ground b) That produced by the use of verbs. the kettle sings; the waves danced c) That produced by the use of nouns.
the smiles of spring; the whisper of leaves
4) Metonymy: the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated.
a) The pen is mightier than the sword. (Here you have the instrument (pen or sword) as a name for the people wielding it.)
b) Gray hairs should be respected. (the symbol (gray hair) as a name for the persons (old people) symbolized)
c) He is too fond of the bottle. (= He is too fond of drinking; the container (wine bottle) as a name for the thing (wine) contained)
d) I have never read Li Bai. (the poet (Li Bai) as a name for the thing made (poems written by Li Bai))
5) Synecdoche: commonly, the naming of a part to mean the whole, as in \for \various other such substitutions are also included in the term.
a) Have you any coppers? (= Have you any money?) (coppers stand for coins of low value made of copper or bronze; here it is the naming of the material (copper) for the thing made (coin) )
b) He is a poor creature. (the naming of the genus for the species)
c) He is the Newton of this century. (the naming of an individual for a class) Note: Synecdoche can easily be mistaken for metonymy.
6) Antonomasia: the term for some common figurative uses of names a) the use of an epithet or title in place of a name his majesty for a king or the name of the king his honor for a judge or the name of the judge the Boss for the name of the employer
b) the use of a proper name instead of a common noun
a Judas (Judas was one of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ who betrayed Jesus) for a traitor
a Quisling (Norwegian fascist politician who led a puppet regime during the German occupation of Norway, later executed for treason) for a traitor He is our Gorky. Gorky, (famous Russian writer) for a famous writer Note: cf. synecdoche. There is a certain degree of overlapping here.
7) Euphemism: the substitution of an inoffensive expression for one that may be disagreeable, as in the use of \in \for \
2. Figures of emphasis or understatement
1) Hyperbole: a conscious exaggeration for the sake of emphasis, not intended to be understood literally.
a) The wave ran mountain high.
b) America laughed with Mark Twain. c) His speech brought the house down.
d) All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
2) Litotes: a form of understatement which gains its particular effect by phrasing in the negative what it wishes to say positively.
a) This is no small accomplishment. (It means this is an accomplishment of considerable magnitude.)
b) The German fleet was not an unworthy opponent. (It means the German fleet was a formidable opponent.)
c) This is not at all unpleasant. (It means it is quite pleasant.)
3) Antithesis: the setting of contrasting phrases opposite each other for emphasis. In true antithesis the opposition between the elements is manifested through parallel grammatical structure.
a) The quest for righteousness is Oriental, the quest for knowledge, Occidental. (Sir William Osler)
b) Good breeding consists in concealing how much we think of ourselves and how little we think of the other person. (Mark Twain)
c) A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy his crimes. d) The convention bought time; it could not bring settlement.
e) its failures became a part of history but its successes held the clue to a better international order.
4) Paradox: a statement that appears to be logically contradictory and yet may be true, the purpose of which is to provoke fresh thought. a) One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter. b) A lover of peace emerged as a magnificent leader of war. c) My life closed twice before its close. (Emily Dickinson)
(meaning two truly eventful things occurred in her life before that life ceased) 5) Oxymoron: a kind of paradox or antithesis that links together two sharply contrasting terms, as \pessimist'', \wisest fool in Christendom\\deaths\
6) Epigram: a short, pithy statement in verse or prose, usually with a touch of wit, often antithetical
a) Conscience is the inner voice that warns us that someone may be looking. (H. L. Mencken)
b) Necessity is the mother of invention.
c) The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth)
(the intended meaning is that the actions of a boy indicate what kind of a man he is likely to become)
d) Experience is the name everyone gives to his mistakes.
Note: There may be some overlapping of an epigram and a paradox.
7) Apostrophe: the turning away from the subject and the addressing of an absent person or a personified object or abstraction. The shift is both emotional and dignified, therefore most appropriate in serious and stately contexts.
a) \ b) \
c) \thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee.\(Wordsworth)
(Milton, famous English revolutionary and poet, who wrote \Lost\John Milton lived and wrote in the 17th century and the English romantic poet, William Wordsworth in the 18th and 19th centuries. )
8) Rhetorical Question: a question neither requiring nor intended to produce a reply but asked for emphasis. The assumption is that only one answer is possible. a) Was I not at the scene of the crime? (Lesson 2) b) O Wind
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelley: Ode to the West Wind. )
9) Irony: the expression of actual intent in words that carry the opposite meaning. It is an effective literary device because it gives the impression of great restraint.
a) ... until we are marching backwards to the glorious age of the sixteenth century (Lesson 10)
b) He was my friend, faithful and just to me: But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. (Shakespeare: Julius Caesar)
(Antony here is saying just the opposite. He means that Brutus is not honourabte, he is a murderer. )
10) Sarcasm: a cutting remark, a verbal sneer. Sarcasm pretends to disguise its meaning, but does not intend to be misunderstood. a) \
(addressed to one who won't lend the speaker 5 Yuan )
b) He is very generous indeed. (referring to one who won't lend the speaker his dictionary)
c) Where's y' go for it, man – Jamaica? (Lesson 16)
(Hopkins's cutting remark to McNair, the custodian, for not being quick enough with the rum. Jamaica is an island in the Caribbean, world famous for its rum.)
11) Satire: It generally refers to a piece of literary work – prose, poetry or drama – and generally not to a single sentence. It uses ridicule' to expose and to judge behaviour or ideas that the satirist finds foolish, or wicked, or both; Swift' s \Modest Proposal\
12) Ridicule: instance of being made fun of
a) They' 11 be wanderin' in any time now, sir, – with Old Grape'n\pack. (Lesson 16)
b) Bryan, ageing and paunchy, was assisted in his prosecution by his son ... Tom Stewart. (Lesson 10)
