People in jobs will work fewer hours in the day, fewer days in the week, fewer weeks in the year, and fewer years in a lifetime, than they do now. This will mean that more jobs will be available for more people. This, it is said, is the way we should set about restoring full employment.
2 There is no doubt that something of this kind will happen. The shorter working week, longer holidays, earlier retirement, job-sharing — these and other ways of reducing the amount of time people spend on their jobs — are certainly likely to spread. A mix of parttime paid work and part-time unpaid work is likely to become a much more common work pattern than today, and a flexi-life pattern of work — involving paid employment at certain stages of life, but not at others — will become widespread. But it is surely unrealistic to assume that this will make it possible to restore full employment as the dominant form of work.
3 In the first place, so long as employment remains the overwhelmingly important form of work and source of income for most people, it is very difficult to see how reductions in employees' working time can take place on a scale sufficiently large and at a pace sufficiently fast to make it possible to share out the available paid employment to everyone who wants it. Such negotiations as there have recently been, for example in Britain and Germany, about the possibility of introducing a 35-hour working week, have highlighted some of the difficulties. But, secondly, if changes of this kind were to take place at a pace and on a scale sufficient to make it possible to share employment among all who wanted it, the resulting situation — in which most people would not be working in their jobs for more than two or three short days a week — could hardly continue to be one in which employment was still regarded as the only truly valid form of work. There would be so many people spending so much of their time on other activities, including other forms of useful work, that the primacy of employment would be bound to be called into question, at least to some extent.
20. The author uses the negotiations in Britain and Germany as an example to A. support reductions in employees' working time. B. indicate employees are unwilling to share jobs. C. prove the possibility of sharing paid employment. D. how that employment will lose its dominance.
21. At the end of the passage the author seems to imply that as a result of shorter working time A. employment may not retain its usual importance. B. employment may not be regarded as valid work. C. people can be engaged in far less unpaid work. D. people can be engaged in far more unpaid work.
22. The author's attitude towards future full employment is generally A. supportive. B. wavering. C. skeptical. D. unclear. TEXT D
1 During the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, advertising was a relatively straightforward means of announcement and communication and was used mainly to promote novelties and fringe products. But when factory production got into full swing and new products, e. g. processed foods, came onto the market, national advertising campaigns and brandnaming of products became necessary. Before large-scale factory production, the typical manufacturing unit had been small and adaptable and the task of distributing and selling goods had largely been undertaken by wholesalers. The small non-specialized factory which did not rely on massive investment in machinery had been flexible enough to adapt its production according to changes in public demands.
2 But the economic depression which lasted from 1873 to 1894 marked a turning point between the old method of industrial organization and distribution and the new. From the beginning of the nineteenth century until the 1870s, production had steadily expanded and there had been a corresponding growth in retail outlets. But the depression brought on a crisis of over-production and under-consumption — manufactured goods piled up unsold and prices and profits fell. Towards the end of the century many of the small industrial firms realized that they
would be in a better position to weather economic depressions and slumps if they combined with other small businesses and widened the range of goods they produced so that all their eggs were not in one basket. They also realized that they would have to take steps to ensure that once their goods had been produced there was a market for them. This period ushered in the first phase of what economists now call \capitalism\which, roughly speaking, refers to the control of the market by a small number of giant, conglomerate enterprises. Whereas previously competitive trading had been conducted by small rival firms, after the depression the larger manufacturing units and combines relied more and more on mass advertising to promote their new range of products.
3 A good example of the changes that occurred in manufacture and distribution at the turn of the century can be found in the soap trade. From about the 1850s the market had been flooded with anonymous bars of soap, produced by hundreds of small manufacturers and distributed by wholesalers and door-to-door sellers. Competition grew steadily throughout the latter half of the century and eventually the leading companies embarked on more aggressive selling methods in order to take customers away from their rivals. For instance, the future Lord Leverhulme decided to \his soap by selling it in distinctive packages in order to facilitate recognition and encourage customer loyalty.
4 Lord Leverhulme was one of the first industrialists to realize that advertisements should contain \and considered\arguments as well as eye-catching and witty slogans. Many advertisers followed his lead and started to include \detail about how the product could enhance marital bliss by cutting down the time the wife had to spend with her arms in a bowl of frothy suds. And an ad for Cadbury's cocoa not only proclaimed its purity but also detailed other benefits. \Miss in her teens a valuable aid to development...\advertising of this period had reached the \bust seemed to be the rule of the day as bigger and more expensive campaigns were mounted and smaller firms who did not, or could not, advertise, were squeezed or bought out by the larger companies.
23. An example of a product which might well have been advertised during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution is
A. a cooking utensil. B. new child's toy. C. tinned fruit. D. household soap.
24. One of the more aggressive selling methods in the soap trade by the leading companies was to A. buy out small firms. B. take over distribution.
C. resort to product designing. D. keep contact with their customers. 25. In addition to distinctive packaging, contemporary products should also A. draw customers' attention to their benefits. B. make customers aware of their attractiveness. C. display details of the main ingredients. D. focus on proclamation and promotion. TEXT E
Pardon me: how are your manners?
1 The decline of civility and good manners may be worrying people more than crime, according to Gentility Recalled, edited by Digby Anderson, which laments the breakdown of traditional codes that once regulated social conduct. It criticizes the fact that \
2 The result, according to Mr. Anderson — director of the Social Affairs Unit, an independent think-tank — is a society characterized by rudeness, loutish behavior on the streets, jostling in crowds, impolite shop assistants and bad-tempered drivers.
3 Mr. Anderson says the cumulative effect of these — apparently trivial, but often offensive- is to make
everyday life uneasy, unpredictable and unpleasant. As they are encountered far more often than crime, they can cause more anxiety than crime.
4 When people lament the disintegration of law and order, he argues, what they generally mean is order, as manifested by courteous forms of social contact. Meanwhile, attempts to re-establish restraint and self-control through \
5 The book has contributions from 12 academics in disciplines ranging from medicine to sociology and charts what it calls the \of Britain. Old-fashioned terms such as \and \have lost all meaningful resonance and need to be re-evaluated, it says. Rachel Trickett, honorary fellow and former principal of St Hugh's College, Oxford, says that the notion of a \
6 Feminism and demands for equality have blurred the distinctions between the sexes, creating situations where men are able to dominate women because of their more aggressive and forceful natures, she says, \without some code of deference or respect, become increasingly victims.\
7 Caroline Moore, the first woman fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge, points out that \only with irony or derision.
8 \ between Woosteresque chinless wonders, and those heartless capitalist toffs who are... the stock-in-trade of television.\
9 She argues that the concept is neither class-bound nor rigid conventions of gentlemanly behavior enable a man to act naturally as an individual within shared assumptions while taking his place in society.
10 \restrained and infinitely subtle.\
11 For Anthony O'Hear, professor of philosophy at the University of Bradford, manners are closely associated with the different forms of behavior appropriate to age and status. They curb both the impetuosity of youth and the bitterness of old age.
12 Egalitarianism, he says, has led to people failing to act their age. \have vice- chancellors with earrings, aristocrats as hippies... the trendy vicar on his motorbike.\
13 Dr. Athena Leoussi, sociology lecturer at Reading University, bemoans the deliberate neglect by people of their sartorial appearance.
14 Dress, she says, is the outward expression of attitudes and aspirations. The ubiquitousness of jeans \
15 Dr. Leoussi says that while clothes used to be seen as a means of concealing taboo forces of sexuality and violence, certain fashions — such as leather jackets — have the opposite effect.
16 Dr. Bruce Charlton, a lecturer in public health medicine in Newcastle upon Tyne, takes issue with the excessive informality of relations between professionals such as doctors and bank managers, and their clients. He says this has eroded the distance and respect necessary in such relationships. For Tristam Engelhardt, professor of medicine in Houston, Texas, says manners are bound to morals.
17 \They provide social orientation.\
26. According to the passage, the decline of good manners is more worrying because A. it leads to more crime in society.
B. people view manners as old-fashioned.
C. rudeness on the street cannot be stemmed out. D. it can seriously affect our daily life.
27. Rachel Trickett seems to indicate the term \
A. has acquired a different meaning. B. is too old-fashioned to use. C. is preferred by feminists. D. victimizes women in society.
28. According to Caroline Moore, the media has projected a __________ image of the gentleman. A. humorous B. favorable C. negative D. traditional 29. In Anthony O' Hear's view, a well mannered person
A. acts rashly when he is young. B. tends to be bad-tempered in old age. C. behaves with a sense of appropriacy. D. attaches importance to his status. 30. Dr. Bruce Charlton would probably prefer to see a more fomal relationship A. among doctors. B. among managers.
C. between doctors and managers. D. between doctors and patients. SECTION B SKIMMING AND SCANNING (10 MIN. )
In this section there are seven passages followed by ten multiple-choice questions. Skim or scan them as required and then answer the questions. TEXT F
First read the following question.
31. The President of Association of American railroads wrote the letter to A. complain about public ignorance of its efforts to improve the service.
B. criticize U. S. News for not reporting its efforts to improve the safety record. C. inform the public of what it has achieved over the past decade.
D. thank U. S. News for informing the public of its efforts to reduce accident rate. Now go through TEXT F quickly and answer question 31.
December 20th 199_
Dear Editor,
The American railroad industry's commitment to safety is demonstrated by a steadily declining accident rate over the past decade. The accident rate per million train miles has been reduced by 55 percent since 1981 and 21 percent since 1990. In 11 of the past 16 years, the rail passenger fatality rate was lower than or the same as the airline rate. In addition, rail employees had half the number of lost workday injuries per 100 full-time employees as did airline workers.
Nowhere does U. S. News mention that America's railroads have spent more than US $ 90 billion just since 1990 to maintain and improve tracks and equipment. Nowhere do you mention that railroads — on their own initiative and at their own expense — developed and installed a new type of wheel that is much less likely to fracture and cause accidents. Nowhere do you mention how railroads are now testing a new type of electronically assisted brake that can reduce stopping distance by 40 percent. Nowhere do you explain that more than 90 percent of rail-related fatalities involve highway-rail grade crossing accidents or trespassers—accidents over which railroads have almost no control. \are stubborn things\wrote John Adams more than 200 years ago. Stubborn, that is, unless you choose to ignore them. That is what U. S. News has chosen to do.
Edwin L. Harper President and Chief Executive Officer
Association of American Railroads
TEXT G
First read the following question.
32. The author of the passage is ___________ Johannesburg.
A. concerned about B. critical of C. nostalgic about D. hopeful about Now go through TEXT G quickly and answer question 32.
For a city purported to be dying, Johannesburg looks pretty lively on a Saturday morning. Fleets of minivans deliver black shoppers from Sweto to the teeming sidewalks downtown, where Zairian hawkers peddle everything from kiwis to toaster-ovens. Mozambican barbers shear locks under colored plastic tents. The Carlton Center mall buzzes with chatter in English, French, Zulu and Tswana. At the fast-food Africa Hut,
