机会成本生产以单位的某一产品所必须放弃的其他产品的数量概念 无差异曲线个体无差异曲线：描述，个人无差异曲线是描述单个消费者的偏好与福利的重要概念。通过个体无差异曲线的加总，来构造一条可反应整个社会需求条件与福利的无差异曲线，即社会无差异曲线。 贸易利益的分解
国际贸易与要素价格均等化 悲惨增长悲惨增长的前提条件 要素禀赋理论 里昂惕夫之谜 重叠需求理论 产品周期理论 规模经济的含义
双寡头市场—古诺模型
倾销与反倾销其他非关税壁垒 关税效应：大国情形
出口补贴：小国情形下的配额效应 最佳关税 幼稚产业
完全的经济一体化
1describe the international monetary system known as the Bretton Woods system,orthe gold exchange standard ,that existed from the mid-1940s to the early 1970.How did the system work?Why did it eventually break down?
the system is best described as an adjustable peg.The system may also be described as a gold exchange standard because the key currency,thedollar,wasconveritible into gold for official holdersof dollars.
The bretton woods system of operation, mainly from the following four aspects operation, 1:monetary standard.the BW agreement required that each country fix the value of its currency in terms of gold.theu.s,dollar was the key currency in the system and 1dollar was defined as being equal in value to 1/35 ounce of gold.since every currency had a defined gold value,all currencies were linked in a system of fixed exchange rates.2,Exchange Rate Regime.nations. The adjustable fixed exchange rate, belong to the system were committed to maintaining the parity value of the currency within+-1% of parity3, Monitoring system.the IMF was created to monitor the operation of the system and provide shorter loans to countries experiencing temporary balance-of-payments difficulties4,Reservesystem.Dollar made with gold have equal status the international reserve asset position
The reasons are:1theu.shas been running large balance-of-payments deficits during several dollar crises.dollars had been piling up in foreign cetralbanks.u.s gold holdings began to fall2the fall in u.s.gold reserves led to fears that dollar would be devalued in terms of gold.the pressures fermented3 the foreign dollar liabilities of the u.s.were much lager than the gold stock.
2why do you suppose that small countries tend to fix their exchange rate whereas the largest countries float theirs?
1large countires tends to be more independent and less willing to subjugate their own domestic-policy goals to maintain a fix rate of exchange with foreign currencies. Small countries to be less independent they ‘d like to peg their exchange rate with the large countries.2small countries have open economy,large countries have closed economy,the more open an economy is,the greater will be the importance of tradable-goods prices in the behavior of the overall national price lever.3small countries trade largely with a single foreign country tend to peg their exchange rate to the foreign country’s currency,large countries have many country to trade,isdicersifiedtrade,so there is no necessary to peg their exchange rate.如果一国是小国，那么它就较适宜采用固定性较高的汇率制度，因为这种国家一般
与少数几个大国的贸易依存度较高，汇率的浮动会给它的国际贸易带来不便；同时，小国经济内部价格调整的成本较低。相反，如果一国是大国，则一般以实行浮动性较强的汇率制度为宜，因为大国的对外贸易多元化，很难选择一种基准货币实施固定汇率；同时，大国经济内部调整的成本较高，并倾向于追求独立的经济政策。
3 list three factors relevant for a country’s choice of an exchange rate system,using the u.s. as an example,explain how these factors may have affected u.s.poclicy regarding floating exchange rate.
1country size:u.s.is a large country which tend to be more independent and less willing to subjugate their own domestic-policy goals.2the style of economic:u.s.is closed economy,the tradable-goods prices of amarican is not only depend on international level,3 the style of trade:American is the country of diversified trade,it has many trading partners
4carefully explain how a target zone can help create a more stable exchange rate?
1without any factor’s affect,a flexible exchange rate would be reqresented by the 45 degree line.if we want create a more stable exchange rate,the central banks should attempt to offset the effects of the fundamentals by the exchange.when the exchange rate falling down ,the central bank will buy currency to prevent depreciation and look forward to appreciation.on the contrary,the central bank will take the contrary choice..with a target zone system,the central banks ate committed to intervening so that the exchange rate rises no higher than E=2.04,and falls to lower than E=1.96.
5why are eurobanks able to offer narrower spreads than domestic banks?
Eurobanks are able to offer a lower rate on dollar loans and a higher rate on dollar deposits than theiru.s.competitors because without these differences,theeurodollar market probably would not exist,becauseeurodollar transactions are concernd to be riskier to u.s.residents than domestic dollar transactions in the u.s. are.
6imagine yourself in a job interview for a position with a large international bank.the interviewer mentions that rencently the bank has experienced some problem loans to foreign governments.the interviewer asks you which factors you think the bank should consider when evaluating a loan proposal involving a foreign government agency.how do you respond?
I think the following factors should be considered.1 political factors including splits、extreme nationalism and aversion to foreigners、unfavorable social conditions、conflicts in society evidenced and the strength and organization 2economic factors including external debt、international reserve holdings、exports、economic growth.
7what kind of debt is rescheduled in a paris club arrangement?why is an IMF standby loan agreement required before a paris club?
1The debts owed to governments and commercial banks is rescheduled in a paris club arrangement.2 because the IMF serves as an overseer that can offer debtors new loans if they agree to conditions and the members of the IMF mission to the debtor nation will be of many differentnationalities,and their advice will be nonpolitical.
8difine internal and external balance,and give an example of how the pursuit of one might cause a problem in achieving the other
1internal balance means a steady growth of the domestic economy consistent with a low unemployment rate;external balance is the achievement of a desired trade balance or desired international capital flows2if a country pursuit internal balance,the economy will grow fast and the unemployment rate will be very low,but the rate of inflation will be high and the exports will increase.so the exports and imports in future can not in balance that the external balance will have problems.
9what are the major tools of macroeconomic policy?explain and illustrate how each tool can shift the IS and/or LM curves
1t财政政策(税收和政府支出）和货币政策（贴现率、准备金率、公开市场业务)2财政政策：积极的财政政策（减少税收、增加政府购买）使IS曲线向右移，消极的财政政策（增加税收、减少政府购买）使IS曲线向左移；货币政策：扩张性的货币政策（增加货币供给）使LM曲线右移，紧缩性的货币政策（减少货币供给）使LM左移
10suppose that a nation has high unemployment and a deficit in its balance of payments.use the IS-LM-BP analysis to explain how government policy may be used to
increase income and restore balance-of-payments equilibrium.
11why will the effectiveness of monetary policy differ according to whether or not there are flexible exchange retes? 12BP
13how does a coordinated intervention policy help bring about a convergence of macroeconomics policies? 14 15 16
suppose that the u.s. congress imposes an increase in taxes.under a floating exchange rate regime,carefully illustrate and explain the process that will generate a new goods-market,money-market ,and balance-of-payments equilibrium.what are the effects of such a policy on domestic income and employment?
在浮动汇率下，如果外币利率不变，套利资本会流出，在国内货币不变的情况下，由于经济增长率下降，货币需求下降，进而利率水平下调，接着本币贬值，国际收支朝着逆差方向变化。提高税收属于紧缩性财政政策，直接作用是降低经济增长、国内收入及增加失业。
