（二）为什么论元移位总是从COMP至SPEC?而不能至COMP? COMP只能通过合并，而SPEC两种手段。 （三）为什么循序性？最短距离原则。 （四）题元准则。如何解释：
a. *the jewels stole（NP被指派两个题元角色，因为stole是及物动词）
b. the jewels were stolen（过去分词不指派其主语题元角色；过去分词不指派其补语宾格。） （五）为什么要移？贪婪（自私？）原则：为了满足自身的形态特征需求，而引发的成分移位： a. c.
He is said to have lied to parliament. *It is said [he to have lied to Parliament]. b. *He is said has lied to Parliament. d. It is said [he has lied to Parliament]
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Chapter 9 VP shells
本章关注VP内部的结构。始于双补足语结构的分析。 9．1双补语结构：VP壳理论的提出：
We rolled the ball down the hill. 三分的问题：违背双项合并的原则；错误的预测the ball down the hill不是成分，不能解释He rolled the ball down the hill and the acorn up the mountain.之类的并列结构。
有理由把the ball down the hill处理成某种小句成分，其中the ball为小句主语，PP为小句补足语，因为很多三元谓词都可用作二元谓词，其中谓词后的第一个DP用作主语：
We rolled the ball down the hill. →The ball rolled down the hill.更多实例，见4－9。这类谓词成为通格谓词，定义见P259。 从题元角色来看，the ball在两种情况中具有相同的题元角色。同时，根据UTAH,他们理应占据相同的句法位置。但问题是如何把the ball分别出现在动前和动后两种情况进行统一呢？
一种自然的办法就是假设动词在第一种结构向前移动。根据Larson(1988, 1990), Hale and Keyser(1991, 1993,1994), Chomsky(1995),认为三元结构较之二元结构多含有一个VP shell。具体如下：先看the ball rolled down the hill的生成：（12）。至于we rolled the ball down the hill，是假定在VP之上含有一个致使性的轻动词，该轻动词是词缀性的，会引发后面动词的移位。生成过程见14。 9.3 VP壳理论应用举例：
（一）附加语的位置：注意有关附加语的两个假设：附加在V?上；不改变投射语类性质。下面看（1）两句的生成过程。 (1)a. We gently rolled the ball down the hill. b. We rolled the ball gently down the hill.
Gently在两句中不同的句法位置，也反映了细微的语义区别：one is that the action initiating the rolling motion is gentle; the other is that the rolling motion itself is gentle.
(2) a. He had deliberately rolled the ball gently down the hill.
b. * He had gently rolled the ball deliberately down the hill.
如何解释两句的对立？deliberately语义上只能附加在致使性动词之上。这类副词被称作vp附加语（副词）。 (3) a. Mary jumped the horse perfectly over the last fence b. *Mary perfectly jumped the horse over the last fence. 如何解释两句的对立？perfectly语义上不能附加在致使性动词之上。这类副词被称作VP附加语（副词）。 （二）V NP PP结构： They loaded the truck with hay. He gave no explanation to his friends. 该结构不同于双补足语结构（通格动词）之处在于没有相应的转换用法，如：
*the truck loaded with hay. *No explanation gave to his friends.在利用VP壳理论进行分析时，可假定这类动词是词缀性的，必须附加在致使性轻动词之上，所以无法生成这两个错句。另外一种解释是假定load类动词本质上是及物的，必须出现可以核查宾格的地方。
（三）动结式：The acid turned the litmus-paper red. They painted the house pink. （四）双宾结构：They got the teacher a present.
（五）宾语控制动词结构（object-control predicate）: What decided you to[PRO take syntax] (What made you decide to…) （六）简单及物结构：He read the book (Chomsky, 95) (He performed the action of book-reading)
（七）非通格动词结构：如何解释这类谓词没有补语？（补语被吸收incorporate进空轻动词中）分析见42。 a. They are lunching. b. They are having lunch. a. Let?s party! b. Let?s have a party! 9.4 非宾格动词结构
例句见42。特点：占据补语位置，但表现似主语：一致关系；带主格 其它见教材。但并不是所有谓词都允许动后主语，见43。搞清楚三个概念：非宾格动词：动后主语；非通格动词：有施事主语，无显性宾语；通格动词：有使动用法的不及物动词，参见导读24－25页。
非宾格动词和其它动词的句法对立之一：见48、49。
传统认为（Burzio1986），非宾格动词主语的初始位置是在补足语位置，非宾格结构只是补足语留在了原位。但这给分析带两个论元的非宾格动词带来了问题。如现面Belfast英语中的祈使句：Go you to school!该句不宜分析做51，应分析为52、53。其中轻动词语义相当于happen。相反，对相应及物动词和非通格动词祈使句的分析（如You read that book!/ You protest!）参看56。注意这里所含轻动词的语义相当于perform。
总之，非宾格动词主语和及物动词、非通格动词主语的区别在于，前者基础生成于[spec VP]，后者生成语[spec vp]。由于所
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有的动词短语都由vp+VP构成，V总是移位至v，这样非宾格动词的主语之所以会在动词后就昭然若揭了。 最后，再看下面两句的生成：
a.
There came a cry of anguish from inside the house b. A cry of anguish came from inside the house. 参看58、59。
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Chapter 10 Agreement Projections
10.0 通读本章导读 10.1 split INFL hypothesis 问题（一）：如何分析They have probably all given up smoking.参看（2） a. They have probably completely given up smoking.
b. *They have completely given up smoking. (completely附加在vP上，probably附加在IP上) 问题（二）：
They probably all have given up smoking.（INFL有两主语，如何解决？）
如何解决一INFL两主语问题？把INFL分裂为AgrSP和TP，主语分别处于两个投射的SPEC位置。 再看各句的树图：a. They have probably all given up smoking.图（8） b. They probably all have given up smoking.图（9）
英语中的AUX的特征可强可弱。强时移至AgrS，弱时留再T。但AgrS具有强spec特征，主语必须移至spec-AgrSP。 更多的证据：早期现代英语的宾语爬升：The king your mote did see图（11） Belfast英语中，单数动词可以带复数宾格主语。略。 10.2 split-VP-hypothesis: 在两个VP间投射AgrOP
能达到理论上更多的一致：格、一致特征的核查都必须是在head-specifier之间。
证据（一）：CP补语和DP补语的对立：相对于作客体的CP补足语，作客体的DP补足语都要移至动词后。参见16－18。
a.
He reported to the police that there had been a robbery (CP没有格，无需移动)见图21。 b. He reported the robbery to the police. 见图24。
证据（二）宾语相对于副词的位置：如何解释三句的对立：
a. He plays chess well b. *He plays well chess. C. *He well plays chess. 见图28。 注意附加语可附加的位置：VP(well), vp (deliberately), TP(probably)
证据（三）ECM结构的再分析：The DA proved the witness conclusively to have lied.见图32。 也可以解释ECM结构中的量化词悬浮现象：The DA proved the defendants all to be lying.见图36。 证据（四）双宾结构：The crew handed back the passengers their passports.(间接宾语移至spec-AgrIOP)
既然所有的DP论元都移至相应的ArgP来核查格、一致特征，间接宾语也应移至AgrIOP。试看下面三句的生成：a. The crew handed back the passengers their passports. 见41。
b. The crew handed the passengers back their passports. 见42。 c. The crew handed the passengers their passports back. 见44。
10.3小结: agreement projection共四种：AgrSP, TP, AgrOP, AgrIOP。更多的投射：aspect phrase, voice phrase, modal phrase. 通读246页最后一段。
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Review: main contents of the book
chapter 1: introduction: 1) competence vs. performance; native speaker?s tacit knowledge of his language; nature of the internalized linguistic system
2) criteria of a theory of grammar: descriptive, universal, explanatory, restrictive, learnability, minimal. 3) principles & parameters
chapter 2 categories and features 1) grammar is structure dependent; category based. 2) determination of categories: morphological (derivational; inflectional) & syntactic (substitution)
evidence 3) types of categories: lexical (N, V, A, ADV, P); functional ( D, P, INFL, COMP) 4) features
chapter 3 structure 1) merge: two kinds of merging operations:
（a） XP (b) XP
X complement specifier X?
X complement 2) feature checking 3) c-command
Chapter 4 empty categories 1) PRO: control verbs such as “want, would like” 2) null INFL 3) null D( DP hypothesis)
Chapter 5 head movement 1) I-to-C (Yes-no questions) 2) V-to-I (negative sentences in earlier modern English) Chapter 6 operator movement wh-operator movement conditions: shortest movement; chain uniformity; island condition Chapter 7 subject-to-subject movement (VP-Internal-subject Hypothesis): expletive sentences Chapter 8 A movement raising predicates(seem, appear, happen, turn out); passive sentences
Chapter 9 VP shells double complements construction: ergative predicates(roll); adjunct position; unaccusative predicates (come) Chapter 10 agreement projections split INFL hypothesis & split VP hypothesis
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